By Rick Wayman, CND intern

January 2005

Propecia and rogaine

In the past few months, Iran’s nuclear programme has been the topic of much debate and propecia and rogaine speculation internationally. All of the Nuclear Weapons States have propecia and rogaine been involved in this debate and speculation, along with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the European Union (EU), the United Nations (UN) and many others. US threats to refer Iran to the UN Security Council for propecia and rogaine possible sanctions have subsided somewhat in the past few weeks as the 'EU-3' (Germany, France, Britain) have exerted much diplomatic effort to propecia and rogaine resolve the situation. Recognising that this is a high-tension situation that propecia and rogaine changes every day, CND has released this report to propecia and rogaine reflect our position in relation to the developments up to this point.

Propecia and rogaine

At the root of the current issues surrounding Iran’s nuclear programme is propecia and rogaine its production of enriched uranium. Iran claims that the fuel will be propecia and rogaine used for civilian nuclear reactors, while the Bush Administration strongly suggests that propecia and rogaine the enriched uranium is being prepared for use in nuclear weapons. Iran argues that propecia and rogaine it has complied with all of its obligations as a propecia and rogaine Non-Nuclear Weapons State under the NPT, which permits peaceful uses of atomic energy. (1)

Propecia and rogaine

In 1967, the Tehran Nuclear Research Centre (TNRC) opened with a 5-megawatt light-water research reactor supplied by the US.(2) Iran signed the propecia and rogaine NPT in 1968, and it came into force in March 1970. The NPT allows Iran “the inalienable right…to develop research, production, and use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.” (3)

In 1973, the propecia and rogaine Stanford Research Institute, an influential US American group, reported that propecia and rogaine Iran would need an electrical capacity of 20,000 megawatts by 1990. To achieve this propecia and rogaine level of energy production, the Shah decided to propecia and rogaine build several nuclear reactors, enlisting the help of Kraftwerk Union, a propecia and rogaine subsidiary of Siemens, to build the first two 1200 megawatt reactors at Bushehr. (4) Construction of the propecia and rogaine first reactor began in 1974, and the second one began in 1975. Work was halted after the Islamic Revolution of 1979.

Iran has propecia and rogaine worked with many different countries and companies based in those countries on its nuclear programme: (5)

• United States: Supplied the first research reactor at Tehran University in 1967; Jimmy Carter and propecia and rogaine the Shah signed an agreement in 1978 for propecia and rogaine the US to supply Iran with 8 nuclear power plants, but the plans never materialised.

• France: Framatome signed deals in 1974 to build two 950 mW reactors at Darkhovin and propecia and rogaine in 1977 to build two 900 mW reactors at Karun – these projects were cancelled in 1979; Accepted a loan of (US) $1 billion from the Shah in exchange for 10% ownership in the French Eurodif uranium enrichment plant, located in Pierrelatte – in 2005, Iran still lays claim to propecia and rogaine this ownership, though France disputes this.

• (West) Germany: Kraftwerk Union began construction on the reactors at Bushehr in the 1970s (see above); Germany sued by Iran for $5.4 billion in 1996 for propecia and rogaine refusing to allow Kraftwerk to deliver parts for propecia and rogaine Bushehr that had been paid for in the 1980s; planned to build four additional reactors for propecia and rogaine Iran in 1978, but plans were scrapped after the 1979 Revolution; West German government negotiated on plans to propecia and rogaine dump nuclear waste in the Iranian desert.

• Argentina and Spain: Argentinean corporation INVAP and propecia and rogaine Spanish corporations ENSA and ENUSA, all companies specialising in nuclear technology, entered into talks with Iran in the propecia and rogaine late 1980s to propecia and rogaine rebuild the Bushehr reactors bombed by Iraq during the Iran-Iraq war; no contract was signed.

• China: Supplied four nuclear research reactors at the propecia and rogaine Esfahan Nuclear Technology Centre; reportedly signed a deal in 1990 to propecia and rogaine build a 27mW plutonium production reactor at Esfahan signed a deal in 1992 to build the reactors at Darkhovin (originally to be built by the French – see above), but the contract has yet to be fulfilled.

Propecia and rogaine

Construction of the propecia and rogaine Bushehr nuclear plant, abandoned after the Iranian Revolution of 1979, was started again in cooperation with the propecia and rogaine Russians after the propecia and rogaine end of the Iran-Iraq war. The US argued that the reactors at Bushehr were unnecessary as Iran has propecia and rogaine vast supplies of oil which can be used to propecia and rogaine generate power. This led to the US suspicion that the Bushehr reactors would be propecia and rogaine used for military purposes. Russia countered this assertion by stating that propecia and rogaine the Bushehr reactors were unable to produce weapons-grade plutonium.(6) The Russians also offered to propecia and rogaine allow the US a part in building the Bushehr plant to help allay their proliferation worries relating to the plant.(7)

Enrichment of uranium was originally not supposed to propecia and rogaine take place in Iran. Russia had propecia and rogaine agreed to supply Iran with fuel and take back all Iranian spent fuel from propecia and rogaine the Bushehr plant. Disputes about the cost of this arrangement with the Russians have been ongoing.(8) In late 2002, the propecia and rogaine IAEA discovered that Iran was building a centrifuge plant at Natanz that propecia and rogaine would allow it to enrich uranium, which could produce enough weapons-grade uranium for a number of nuclear weapons.(9) This revelation showed the propecia and rogaine Iranian desire not to be dependent on the Russians, or propecia and rogaine anyone else for that matter, for any stage of the nuclear cycle. This also removed some of the propecia and rogaine US pressure from the Russians regarding the Bushehr nuclear plant, although it propecia and rogaine is still the topic of some conversation between US and Russian officials.(10)

In 2003, Mohammad Khatami, the propecia and rogaine Iranian president, announced that Iran would take control of its entire fuel cycle, from propecia and rogaine mining to enriching. While this step is completely acceptable under IAEA guidelines (as long as it is declared), the possibility of Iranian control of fissile material worried the US, Israel, and European countries.(11)

Russia has propecia and rogaine trained hundreds of Iranians to work on the Bushehr plant at institutes across Russia, including the propecia and rogaine Atomic Energy University at Obninsk. According to propecia and rogaine the Russians, the information learned at these institutes will not give the propecia and rogaine Iranians the necessary knowledge to build nuclear weapons.(12) Russia insists that propecia and rogaine its cooperation with Iran is under the strict supervision of the IAEA.(13)

Propecia and rogaine

In 2002, the propecia and rogaine EU began to seek stronger ties with Iran by entering into negotiations on economic, security, and human rights issues.(14) A year later, the EU linked these negotiations to Iran’s acceptance of a propecia and rogaine tougher inspection regime for its nuclear programme. The EU was keen to undertake a policy of “constructive engagement” with Iran, in contrast to the policy of isolation favoured by the Bush administration.(15)

In September 2003, the propecia and rogaine IAEA presented Iran with an ultimatum to prove that propecia and rogaine they did not have a nuclear weapons programme. Britain, France and Germany (now known in this context as the EU-3) made an offer of sharing peaceful nuclear technology with Iran in exchange for Iran’s cooperation with IAEA demands.(16) What was originally thought to propecia and rogaine be a last-ditch effort by the EU-3 has turned into a drawn-out negotiation session, lasting into 2005.

After much political posturing between Iran and propecia and rogaine the US, with the EU-3 trying to propecia and rogaine negotiate a settlement, Iran agreed to a temporary cessation of uranium enrichment activities in November 2004 while a propecia and rogaine permanent settlement was negotiated. Three separate working groups were set up on political and propecia and rogaine security issues, technology and cooperation, and nuclear issues. The steering committee will meet in early 2005 to propecia and rogaine discuss the conclusions of the working groups and move ahead with an agreement.(17) The EU-3 hopes to propecia and rogaine provide nuclear technology and increased economic opportunities to Iran in exchange for verifiable guarantees that Iran’s nuclear programme is propecia and rogaine only for peaceful purposes, including a rigorous inspections regime.

Propecia and rogaine

Iran signed the NPT as a Non-Nuclear Weapon State (NNWS) in 1970.(18) As a propecia and rogaine NNWS, Iran is prohibited under the treaty from acquiring nuclear weapons. The NPT promotes the propecia and rogaine acquisition of nuclear power programmes in Article IV, thereby failing to propecia and rogaine prevent States from obtaining nuclear materials and propecia and rogaine components. No penalties are applicable to a State that withdraws from propecia and rogaine the treaty, as long as they provide three months notice to propecia and rogaine the UN Security Council. North Korea is the only country to withdraw from the NPT so far.(19)

Under the propecia and rogaine NPT, Iran has a Comprehensive Safeguards Agreement with the IAEA, which gives the propecia and rogaine IAEA the right to inspect nuclear facilities declared by NNWS. In 2003, Iran signed an propecia and rogaine additional protocol to this Safeguards Agreement, giving the propecia and rogaine IAEA authority to inspect additional locations within Iran. Recently, Iran agreed to propecia and rogaine allow IAEA monitoring of twenty sets of centrifuge components that propecia and rogaine were the subject of much scrutiny and suspicion.(20) For months, Iran refused to propecia and rogaine allow unconditional access to the IAEA to military installations, insisting on the propecia and rogaine rules of the treaty calling for IAEA inspections of declared nuclear facilities only. However, they recently agreed to propecia and rogaine allow inspection at Parchin military base, suspected by the US as playing a part in nuclear weapons development.(21)

Iran has propecia and rogaine signed the Additional Protocol to the NPT, which gives the IAEA authority to propecia and rogaine inspect nuclear facilities at short notice. However, Iran has not yet ratified the Additional Protocol.(22)

Propecia and rogaine

CND opposes both the propecia and rogaine use of force against Iran and any acquisition of nuclear weapons capabilities by Iran. Bellicose statements from propecia and rogaine the US and propecia and rogaine Israel have not helped to defuse the situation; on the contrary, they have propecia and rogaine increased political posturing on both sides and have proven counterproductive in resolving the propecia and rogaine issues. Further threats of force are likely to only increase the propecia and rogaine national pride of many Iranians, already provoked by continual demands outside the propecia and rogaine requirements of the NPT, making a peaceful and lasting solution even more difficult to propecia and rogaine come by. The sources of many of the US allegations against Iran relating to propecia and rogaine a nuclear weapons programme are Iranian dissidents and propecia and rogaine exiles. Given the dubious, and apparently completely false, information given to the US by Iraqi exiles about Iraq’s alleged WMD capabilities, we fully expect a propecia and rogaine more responsible and respectful position to be taken by the US in relation to Iran.

CND supports the propecia and rogaine efforts of the EU-3 to reach a mutually acceptable agreement on Iran’s enrichment of uranium and propecia and rogaine their nuclear power programme. We believe that propecia and rogaine the IAEA can serve as an effective safeguard to ensure Iran’s adherence to propecia and rogaine its obligations as a Non-Nuclear Weapons State (NNWS) under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). CND encourages all concerned parties to propecia and rogaine participate in good faith in negotiations to resolve this propecia and rogaine issue peacefully and expediently, and to support the IAEA in the work that it does.

According to propecia and rogaine the NPT, all nations have the right to a peaceful nuclear energy programme, and CND therefore respects Iran’s right to a peaceful civilian nuclear programme. We strongly urge all countries that propecia and rogaine have not signed up to propecia and rogaine the NPT to do so. This will help stabilise a region of the world where propecia and rogaine three nuclear-armed countries, Israel, Pakistan and India, have propecia and rogaine not signed the treaty. We also encourage all Nuclear Weapons States to propecia and rogaine pursue negotiations in good faith towards nuclear disarmament as required under Article VI of the NPT.

CND supports the propecia and rogaine establishment of a nuclear weapon free zone in the Middle East, as called for propecia and rogaine in UN Security Council Resolution 687. The presence of nuclear weapons in this propecia and rogaine region undermines the Palestine-Israel peace process, and Israel’s secretive possession of nuclear weapons provides a propecia and rogaine convenient excuse for other countries in the region to pursue the bomb. Until Israel signs and propecia and rogaine complies with the NPT, it will be difficult to fairly enforce the treaty upon other countries in the region.

CND calls for propecia and rogaine full transparency of nuclear programmes by all countries in the propecia and rogaine world, and for full international cooperation for the immediate elimination of all weapons of mass destruction.

Endnotes

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